Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondrial inheritance is therefore non-Mendelian, as Mendelian inheritance presumes that half the genetic material of a fertilized egg (zygote) derives from each parent.
No. of genes:
13 (coding genes); 24 (non coding genes)
Length (bp):
16,569
DNA, GENES, CHROMOSOMES AND
MITOCHONDRIA
Our bodies are made up of millions of cells. Each
cell contains a complete copy of a person's genetic
book of life.
Chromosomes can be thought of as being made up
of strings of genes (DNA that codes for proteins)
with non-coding DNA between them. The
chromosomes, including the genes, are made up
of a chemical substance called DNA
(DeoxyriboNucleic Acid).
Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of all body
cells except for red blood cells which have no
nucleus and therefore do not contain
chromosomes.
Another place in the cell where DNA is found is in
very small compartments called mitochondria (the
energy centres of the cell) that are found
scattered outside the nucleus (Figure 12.1). The
DNA in mitochondria is much smaller and has very
little non-coding DNA.
Mitochondria are found randomly scattered
outside the nucleus but still within the cell. The
DNA within the mitochondria is arranged as one
long circle. The role of mitochondria in each of the
cells of the body is mainly to manufacture energy
for the cell and therefore the rest of the body.
It is important to remember that while each cell
will always have only one nucleus, the number of
mitochondria can vary from one cell to another.
A CLOSER LOOK AT MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
The cells in the body, especially in organs such as
the brain, heart, muscle, kidneys and liver, cannot
function normally unless they are receiving a
constant supply of energy. The cell’s energy
source is a chemical called ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) that is used to drive the various
reactions essential for the body to function, grow
and develop.
A number of biochemical reactions that occur in
an ordered sequence within the mitochondria are
responsible for this process of ATP production.
These reactions are under the control of special
proteins called enzymes. The genes found within
the mitochondria contain the information that
codes for the production of some of these
important enzymes.
The biochemical processes which occur in the
mitochondria and produce energy make up the
mitochondrial respiratory chain. This ‘chain’ is
made up of five components called complexes 1,
2, 3, 4 and 5. Each of these complexes is made up
of a number of proteins. The instructions for these
proteins to be produced by the cells are contained
in a number of different genes.
There are many different genes needed to
produce the components of the mitochondrial
respiratory chain. Some of these genes are found
in the mitochondria and others are in the nucleus.
A variation in a gene (either in the nucleus or
mitochondria) that creates a fault is called a
pathogenic variant or mutation.
A mitochondrial DNA mutation can result in
biochemical problems due to absence of enzymes
involved in the respiratory chain, or enzymes that
are impaired and do not work properly. This leads
to a reduction in the supply of ATP, and may
result in problems with the body’s functions.
WHAT DOES IT MEAN IF YOU HAVE A
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA GENE MUTATION?
The number of mitochondria in every cell of a
person’s body varies from a few to hundreds.
• All of these mitochondria, and therefore the
DNA within the mitochondria, descend from
the small number of mitochondria present in
the original egg cell at the time of that
person’s conception
• The sperm contributes very few
mitochondria to the baby. An individual’s
mitochondria are generally only inherited
from his or her mother. A variation
(mutation) in one of the mitochondrial genes
that makes it faulty, can therefore be passed
by the mother to a child via her egg cells
• This pattern of inheritance is therefore often
referred to as maternal inheritance.
The egg cell contains many mitochondria. If a
particular gene in every mitochondria in an egg
cell has a mutation and is therefore sending the
incorrect instructions, the disruption to energy
production would be so severe that the early
embryo would probably not survive.
The fact that a person survives to birth and is
affected with a mitochondrial condition means
that they must have inherited two types of
mitochondria from his or her mother: some
containing the working copy of the gene, and
some containing the mutation.
The working copy of the mitochondrial gene will
still be able to send the right instructions, but the
total amount of energy produced may be
impacted and may result in a mitochondrial
condition.
On the other hand, having some mitochondria
with a mutation may not cause a problem at all as
described below.
An example of mitochondrial (maternal)
inheritance
In some cases, the variation in the mitochondrial
gene occurs for the first time in the egg or at the
time of fertilisation of the egg.
This is a new or spontaneous change that has
occurred to make the particular mitochondrial
gene faulty. In this case the affected person is
the first in the family to be affected by the
condition and the condition is described as
sporadic. If the affected person is female, she
may pass on the mitochondrial gene mutation to
her children.
Usually, however, the mitochondrial mutation is
inherited from a mother whose own cells,
including her egg cells, contain both working and
faulty copies of this mitochondrial gene. Figure
12.2 is an example of a family tree with a pattern
of inheritance of a genetic condition caused by a
faulty mitochondrial gene.
In Figure 12.2 the grandmother has one or more
faulty mitochondrial genes but is not affected
because she has enough working copies to
enable most of the mitochondria in her cells to
work properly.
• While she has passed on these faulty
mitochondrial genes to her children, through
her egg, not all are affected by the condition
• One of the reasons for this is thought to be
the threshold effect of mitochondrial faulty
genes.
Due to the way that mitochondria are randomly
distributed into the egg cells when the eggs are
forming in the ovary, each individual egg cell’s
mitochondrial make-up may vary from mostly
correct to mostly faulty.
• Therefore, all of the children of this
grandmother, regardless of the sex of the
child, would inherit some faulty
mitochondria
• The child would only develop symptoms,
however, if the proportion of mitochondria
with the faulty gene reached a critical level
in enough cells, which would interfere with
energy production in the body organ that is
vulnerable to the condition
• It is only when there are so many copies of
the faulty mitochondrial genes present in
the cells that the working copies are unable
to provide enough working gene product,
that the person will have the condition
• The number of mitochondria that are
faulty may also vary from one cell to the
next, and so symptoms of the condition
will not occur unless there are enough
cells, with enough faulty mitochondria (i.e.
exceed the critical level).
So even though two of the grandmother’s
unaffected children in Figure 12.2 have
inherited the faulty mitochondrial genes, they
have more working copies than faulty copies.
• While the father (b) in the family shown in
Figure 12.2 is affected, his children are not
at risk for inheriting the condition as the
vast majority of the mitochondria are
passed to children from their mother
through the eggs
• The grandmother’s daughters, however,
are at risk of having a child affected with
the mitochondrial genetic condition,
regardless of whether they themselves are
affected. It is difficult to give a precise
estimation of their risk as it will depend on
how many faulty mitochondria are in the
egg at conception, and which tissues and
organs will have enough cells with faulty
mitochondria over the critical threshold
for the condition to occur.
No. of genes:
13 (coding genes); 24 (non coding genes)
Length (bp):
16,569
DNA, GENES, CHROMOSOMES AND
MITOCHONDRIA
Our bodies are made up of millions of cells. Each
cell contains a complete copy of a person's genetic
book of life.
Chromosomes can be thought of as being made up
of strings of genes (DNA that codes for proteins)
with non-coding DNA between them. The
chromosomes, including the genes, are made up
of a chemical substance called DNA
(DeoxyriboNucleic Acid).
Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of all body
cells except for red blood cells which have no
nucleus and therefore do not contain
chromosomes.
Another place in the cell where DNA is found is in
very small compartments called mitochondria (the
energy centres of the cell) that are found
scattered outside the nucleus (Figure 12.1). The
DNA in mitochondria is much smaller and has very
little non-coding DNA.
Mitochondria are found randomly scattered
outside the nucleus but still within the cell. The
DNA within the mitochondria is arranged as one
long circle. The role of mitochondria in each of the
cells of the body is mainly to manufacture energy
for the cell and therefore the rest of the body.
It is important to remember that while each cell
will always have only one nucleus, the number of
mitochondria can vary from one cell to another.
A CLOSER LOOK AT MITOCHONDRIAL DNA
The cells in the body, especially in organs such as
the brain, heart, muscle, kidneys and liver, cannot
function normally unless they are receiving a
constant supply of energy. The cell’s energy
source is a chemical called ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) that is used to drive the various
reactions essential for the body to function, grow
and develop.
A number of biochemical reactions that occur in
an ordered sequence within the mitochondria are
responsible for this process of ATP production.
These reactions are under the control of special
proteins called enzymes. The genes found within
the mitochondria contain the information that
codes for the production of some of these
important enzymes.
The biochemical processes which occur in the
mitochondria and produce energy make up the
mitochondrial respiratory chain. This ‘chain’ is
made up of five components called complexes 1,
2, 3, 4 and 5. Each of these complexes is made up
of a number of proteins. The instructions for these
proteins to be produced by the cells are contained
in a number of different genes.
There are many different genes needed to
produce the components of the mitochondrial
respiratory chain. Some of these genes are found
in the mitochondria and others are in the nucleus.
A variation in a gene (either in the nucleus or
mitochondria) that creates a fault is called a
pathogenic variant or mutation.
A mitochondrial DNA mutation can result in
biochemical problems due to absence of enzymes
involved in the respiratory chain, or enzymes that
are impaired and do not work properly. This leads
to a reduction in the supply of ATP, and may
result in problems with the body’s functions.
WHAT DOES IT MEAN IF YOU HAVE A
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA GENE MUTATION?
The number of mitochondria in every cell of a
person’s body varies from a few to hundreds.
• All of these mitochondria, and therefore the
DNA within the mitochondria, descend from
the small number of mitochondria present in
the original egg cell at the time of that
person’s conception
• The sperm contributes very few
mitochondria to the baby. An individual’s
mitochondria are generally only inherited
from his or her mother. A variation
(mutation) in one of the mitochondrial genes
that makes it faulty, can therefore be passed
by the mother to a child via her egg cells
• This pattern of inheritance is therefore often
referred to as maternal inheritance.
The egg cell contains many mitochondria. If a
particular gene in every mitochondria in an egg
cell has a mutation and is therefore sending the
incorrect instructions, the disruption to energy
production would be so severe that the early
embryo would probably not survive.
The fact that a person survives to birth and is
affected with a mitochondrial condition means
that they must have inherited two types of
mitochondria from his or her mother: some
containing the working copy of the gene, and
some containing the mutation.
The working copy of the mitochondrial gene will
still be able to send the right instructions, but the
total amount of energy produced may be
impacted and may result in a mitochondrial
condition.
On the other hand, having some mitochondria
with a mutation may not cause a problem at all as
described below.
An example of mitochondrial (maternal)
inheritance
In some cases, the variation in the mitochondrial
gene occurs for the first time in the egg or at the
time of fertilisation of the egg.
This is a new or spontaneous change that has
occurred to make the particular mitochondrial
gene faulty. In this case the affected person is
the first in the family to be affected by the
condition and the condition is described as
sporadic. If the affected person is female, she
may pass on the mitochondrial gene mutation to
her children.
Usually, however, the mitochondrial mutation is
inherited from a mother whose own cells,
including her egg cells, contain both working and
faulty copies of this mitochondrial gene. Figure
12.2 is an example of a family tree with a pattern
of inheritance of a genetic condition caused by a
faulty mitochondrial gene.
In Figure 12.2 the grandmother has one or more
faulty mitochondrial genes but is not affected
because she has enough working copies to
enable most of the mitochondria in her cells to
work properly.
• While she has passed on these faulty
mitochondrial genes to her children, through
her egg, not all are affected by the condition
• One of the reasons for this is thought to be
the threshold effect of mitochondrial faulty
genes.
Due to the way that mitochondria are randomly
distributed into the egg cells when the eggs are
forming in the ovary, each individual egg cell’s
mitochondrial make-up may vary from mostly
correct to mostly faulty.
• Therefore, all of the children of this
grandmother, regardless of the sex of the
child, would inherit some faulty
mitochondria
• The child would only develop symptoms,
however, if the proportion of mitochondria
with the faulty gene reached a critical level
in enough cells, which would interfere with
energy production in the body organ that is
vulnerable to the condition
• It is only when there are so many copies of
the faulty mitochondrial genes present in
the cells that the working copies are unable
to provide enough working gene product,
that the person will have the condition
• The number of mitochondria that are
faulty may also vary from one cell to the
next, and so symptoms of the condition
will not occur unless there are enough
cells, with enough faulty mitochondria (i.e.
exceed the critical level).
So even though two of the grandmother’s
unaffected children in Figure 12.2 have
inherited the faulty mitochondrial genes, they
have more working copies than faulty copies.
• While the father (b) in the family shown in
Figure 12.2 is affected, his children are not
at risk for inheriting the condition as the
vast majority of the mitochondria are
passed to children from their mother
through the eggs
• The grandmother’s daughters, however,
are at risk of having a child affected with
the mitochondrial genetic condition,
regardless of whether they themselves are
affected. It is difficult to give a precise
estimation of their risk as it will depend on
how many faulty mitochondria are in the
egg at conception, and which tissues and
organs will have enough cells with faulty
mitochondria over the critical threshold
for the condition to occur.
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